Rodrigo Martins

Microcrystalline p-i-n silicon devices are a prospective contender for application in large-area optoelectronics. In this paper we analyse the behaviour of a μc-Si:H p-i-n photodevice under non-uniform illumination. The effect of a spatially non-uniform illumination is to create lateral electric fields and current flows inside the structure. We present in this paper a numerical application of a complete bidimensional model describing the transport properties within the structure. The continuity equations forholes and electrons together with Poisson's equation are solved simultaneously along the two directions parallel and perpendicular to the junction. The results of simulating p-i-n μc-Si:H junctions under non-uniform illumination show that the generated lateral effects depend not only in intensity but also in direction on the wavelength of the incident radiation. © 1997 Elsevier Science S.A.

In this paper a set of one-dimensional simulations of a-Si:H p-i-n junctions under different illumination conditions and with different intrinsic layer are presented. The simulation program ASCA permits the analysis of the internal electrical behaviour of the cell allowing a comparison among the different internal configurations determined by a change in the input set. Results about the internal electric configuration will be presented and discussed outlining their influence on the current tension characteristic curve. Considerations about the drift-diffusion and the generation-recombination balance distributions, outlined by the simulation, can be used to explain the correlation between the basic device output, the i-layer characteristics (thickness and DOS), the incident radiation intensity and photon energy. © 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

The behaviour of a microcrystalline p-i-n junction locally illuminated with monochromatic radiation (incident power of 50 mW/cm2) is analysed by means of numerical experiences. The model used for the two-dimensional analysis of the transport properties of a μc-Si:H p-i-n photo-detector is based on the simultaneous solution of the continuity equations for holes and electrons together with the Poisson's equation. The solution is found on a rectangular domain, taking into account the dimension perpendicular to the junction plane and one on the parallel plane. The lateral effects occurring within the structure, due to the non-uniformity of the illumination, are outlined. The results we present show that the potential profile has a linear variation from the illuminated to the dark neutral region. The lateral components of the electric field and of the current density vectors reveal to be mainly localised inside the doped layers.

Microcrystalline silicon is a two-phase material. Its composition can be interpreted as grains of crystalline silicon imbedded in an amorphous silicon tissue, with a high concentration of danglind bonds in the transition regions. In this paper, results obtained by means of numerical simulations about the transport properties of a μc-Si:H p-i-n junction are reported. The role played by the boundary regions between the crystalline grains and the amorphous matrix is taken in account, and these regions are treated similarly to a heterojunction interface. The influence of the local electric field at the grains boundary transition regions on the internal electric configuration of the device is outlined under illumination and applied external bias. © 1999 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.

We present here a two-dimensional numerical simulation of a hydrogenated amorphous silicon p-i-n solar cell non-uniformly illuminated through the p-layer. This simulation is used to show the effect of the presence of dark regions in the illuminated surface on the electrical behaviour of the device. The continuity equations for holes and electrons together with Poisson's equation, implemented with a recombination mechanism reflecting the amorphous structure of the material, are solved using standard numerical techniques over a rectangular domain. The results obtained reveal the appearance of a lateral component of the electric field and current density vectors inside the structure. The effect of such components is a lateral carrier flow of electrons inside the intrinsic layer and of holes inside the p-layer, resulting in leakage of the transverse current collected at the contacts and an increase in the series resistance.

This paper is concerned with the modelling and simulation of amorphous and microcrystalline silicon optoelectronic devices. The physical model and its mathematical formulation are extensively described. Its numerical reduction is also discussed together with the presentation of a computer program dedicated to the simulation of the electrical behaviour of such devices. This computer program, called ASCA (Amorphous Silicon Solar Cells Analysis), is capable of simulating, on one- and two-dimensional domains, the internal electrical behaviour of multi-layer structures, homojunctions and heterojunctions under simple or complex spectra illumination and externally applied biases. The applications of the simulator presented in this work are the analysis of μc/a-Si:H p-i-n photovoltaic cell in thermal equilibrium and illuminated by monochromatic light and the AMI.5 solar spectrum, with and without polarisation. We also study the appearance within the device of lateral components of the electric field and current density vectors when the illumination is not uniform. © 1999 IMACS/Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

We report here about a computer simulation program, based on a comprehensive physical and numerical model of an a/μc-Si:H p-i-n device, applied to the 2D problem of describing the transport properties within the structure under non- uniform illumination. The continuity equations for holes and electrons together with Poisson's equation are solved simultaneously along the two directions parallel and perpendicular to the junction. The basic semiconductor equations are implemented with a recombination mechanism reflecting the microcrystalline structure of the different layers. The lateral effects occurring within the structure, due to the non-uniformity of the radiation are outlined. The simulation results obtained for different wavelengths of the incident light are compared and shown their dependence on the energy of the radiation. The results of simulating a p-i-n μc-Si:H junctions under non-uniform illumination is that the generated lateral effects depend not only in intensity but also in direction on the wavelength of the incident radiation. ©2004 Copyright SPIE - The International Society for Optical Engineering.

The introduction into a traditional p.i.n structure of two defective buffer layers near the p/i and i/n interfaces can improve the device stability and efficiency through an enhancement of the electric field profile at the interfaces and a reduction of the available recombination bulk centers. The defectous layer ("i′-layer"), grown at a higher power density, present a high density of defects and acts as "gettering centers" able to tailor light induced defects under degradation conditions. If the i-layer density of states remains below 1016 eV-1 cm-3 and assuming a Gaussian distribution of defect states, the gettering center distribution will not affect significantly the carrier population but only its spatial distribution. We report here about a device numerical simulation that allows us to analyse the influence of the "i′-layer" position, thickness and density of states on the a-Si: H solar cells performances. Results of some systematic simulation from the ASCA program (Amorphous Solar Cell Analysis), and for different configurations will be presented. © 1994 Materials Research Society.

The introduction into a traditional p.i.n. structure of two defective buffer layers near the p/i and i/n interfaces can improve the device stability and efficiency through an enhancement of the electric field profile at the interfaces and a reduction of the available recombination bulk centers. The defectous layer (`i-layer'), grown at a higher power density, present a high density of the defects and acts as `gettering centers' able to tailor light induced defects under degradation conditions. If the i-layer density of states remains below 1016 eV-1 cm-3 and assuming a Gaussian distribution of defect states, the gettering center distribution will not affect significantly the carrier population but only its spatial distribution. We report here about a device numerical simulation that allows us to analyze the influence of the `i- layer' position, thickness and density of states on the a-Si:H solar cells performances. Results of some systematic simulation rom the ASCA program (Amorphous Solar Cell Analysis), and for different configurations will be presented.

Microcrystalline silicon is a two-phase material. Its composition can be interpreted as a series of grains of crystalline silicon imbedded in an amorphous silicon tissue, with a high concentration of dangling bonds in the transition regions. In this paper, results for the transport properties of a μc-Si:H p-i-n junction obtained by means of two-dimensional numerical simulation are reported. The role played by the boundary regions between the crystalline grains and the amorphous matrix is taken into account and these regions are treated similar to a heterojunction interface. The device is analyzed under AM1.5 illumination and the paper outlines the influence of the local electric field at the grain boundary transition regions on the internal electric configuration of the device and on the transport mechanism within the μc-Si:H intrinsic layer.

This paper reports on a method and a test setup developed to measure the transient dark current and the spectral response characteristics of a-Si:H MIS photosensors. Using this method the segmented-gate/SiNx/a Si:H/n +/ITO structures have been characterized under different biasing conditions. The dependences of the dark and light signals on the refresh pulse amplitude, offset voltage and pulse width were measured and analyzed. It is found that the amplitude of the time-dependent component of the leakage current associated with charge trapping at the insulator-semiconductor interface can be significantly reduced by adjusting the offset voltage. The observed bias dependence of the spectral response characteristics is explained by analyzing the charge carrier transport in the absorption layer at different wavelengths of the incident light. © 2008 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.

The working principle of silicon p-i-n structures with low conductivity (σd) doped layers as single element image sensors is based on the modulation, by the local illumination conditions of the photocurrent generated by a light beam scanning the active area of the device. A higher sensitivity is achieved using a wide band gap a-Si:C alloy in the doped layers, improving the light penetration into the intrinsic semiconductor and reducing the lateral currents in the structure, which are responsible by an image smearing effect observed in sensors with high σd doped layers. This work focuses on the transient response of such sensor and on the role of the carbon (C) content of the doped layers. A set of devices with different percentage of C incorporation in the doped layers is analyzed by measuring the scanner-induced photocurrent under different bias conditions, (ranging from -1.5V to 1V) in order to evaluate the response time.

This work presents preliminary results in the study of a novel structure for a laser scanned photodiode (LSP) type of image sensor. In order to increase the signal output, a stacked p-i-n-p-i-n structure with an intermediate light-blocking layer is used. The image and the scanning beam are incident through opposite sides of the sensor and their absorption is kept in separate junctions by an intermediate light-blocking layer. As in the usual LSP structure the scanning beam-induced photocurrent is dependent on the local illumination conditions of the image. The main difference between the two structures arises from the fact that in this new structure the image and the scanner have different optical paths leading to an increase in the photocurrent when the scanning beam is incident on a region illuminated on the image side of the sensor, while a decreasing in the photocurrent was observed in the single junction LSP. The results show that the structure can be successfully used as an image sensor even though some optimization is needed to enhance the performance of the device. © 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The laser scanned photodiode (LSP) presents a new concept of image sensor with application in fields where low cost, large area and design simplicity are of major importance. Over the past few years this type of sensor has been under investigation and development, where several structures have been tested and characterized. In this work we present the physical explanation of device operating principle, with recourse to numerical simulation applied to structures with different compositions of the doped layers. An electrical model for this type of device is presented, enabling a fast evaluation of the device characteristics by means of an electrical simulation program. © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Currently, microactuators are being developed using shape memory alloys (SMAs), which allow simple design geometries and provide large work outputs in restricted space. Several techniques have been used to produce NiTi shape memory alloy thin films, but from the practical point of view, only the sputter deposition method has succeeded so far. Vacuum evaporation of NiTi binary alloy entails the potential problem of the evaporation rates of each component not being the same due to differences in vapour pressure. Aiming to study the possible applications of SMAs to microfabrication, NiTi thin films were produced at CENIMAT by sputter and vacuum evaporation using raw materials from different sources. The films were analysed by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) at room temperature, as well as in situ high temperature, in order to characterise the temperature ranges at which the different structural transformations occur. © 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

In recent works large area hydrogenated amorphous silicon p-i-n structures with low conductivity doped layers were proposed as single element image sensors. The working principle of this type of sensor is based on the modulation, by the local illumination conditions, of the photocurrent generated by a light beam scanning the active area of the device. In order to evaluate the sensor capabilities is necessary to perform a response time characterization. This work focuses on the transient response of such sensor and on the influence of the carbon contents of the doped layers. In order to evaluate the response time a set of devices with different percentage of carbon incorporation in the doped layers is analyzed by measuring the scanner-induced photocurrent under different bias conditions. © 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The devices analyzed in this work present an S-shape J-V characteristic when illuminated. By changing the light flux a non linear dependence of the photocurrent with illumination is observed. Thus a low intensity light beam can be used to probe the local illumination conditions, since a relationship exists between the probe beam photocurrent and the steady state illumination. Numerical simulation studies showed that the origin of this S-shape lies in a reduced electric field across the intrinsic region, which causes an increase in the recombination losses. Based on this, we present a model for the device consisting of a modulated barrier recombination junction in addition to the p-i-n junction. The simulated results are in good agreement with the experimental data. Using the presented model a good estimative of the LSP signal under different illumination conditions can be obtained, thus simplifying the development of applications using the LSP as an image sensor, with advantages over the existing imaging systems in the large area sensor fields with the low cost associated to the amorphous silicon technology. © 2007 Materials Research Society.

P- and n-type silicon thin films have been produced using a new hot wire plasma assisted deposition process that combines the conventional plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition and the hot wire techniques. The films were produced in the presence of different hydrogen gas flow and their optoelectronic, structural and compositional properties have been studied. The optimized optoelectronic results achieved for n-type Si:H films are conductivity at room temperature of 9.4(Ωcm)-1 and optical band gap of 2eV while for p-type SiC:H films these values are 1 × 10-2(Ωcm)-1 and 1.6eV, respectively. The films exhibit the required optoelectronic characteristics and compactness for device applications such as solar cells.

Results are presented concerning the morphological and structural characteristics exhibited by the Cu-Sn-Cu system to be used in electronic lead-free soldering processes, under different process temperatures and pressures. The results show that the Cu3Sn or Cu6Sn5 phases needed to supply the thermal, mechanical and electrical stability to the joints formed require Sn layers (either electrodeposited or by using preforms) whose thickness depends on the process temperature used. For process temperatures of 533 K the thickness of the Sn layer should be above 20 μm, while for process temperatures of 573 K, the Sn thickness required is reduced to 10 μm. The joints formed support shear stresses above 12 MPa, as required by electronic standards. Apart from that, microcracks start appearing if an excess of Sn is used during the soldering operation. The set of tests performed indicates that this new joint is quite promising to substitute the conventional solder process applied to power diodes.

This paper reports on the use of cellulose paper simultaneously as electrolyte, separation of electrodes, and physical support of a rechargeable battery. The deposition on both faces of a paper sheet of metal or metal oxides thin layers with different electrochemical potentials, respectively as anode and cathode, such as Cu and Al, lead to an output voltage of 0.70 V and a current density that varies between 150 nA/cm2 and 0.5 mA/cm2, subject to the paper composition, thickness and the degree of OHx species adsorbed in the paper matrix. The electrical output of the paper battery is independent of the electrodes thickness but strongly depends on the atmospheric relative humidity (RH), with a current density enhancement by more than 3 orders of magnitude when RH changes from 60% to 85%. Besides flexibility, low cost, low material consumption, environmental friendly, the power output of paper batteries can be adapted to the desired voltagecurrent needed, by proper integration. A 3-V prototype was fabricated to control the ON/OFF state of a paper transistor. © 2006 IEEE.

In this work, we report the optical and compositional properties of hydrogenated amorphous silicon carbide (a-SiC:H) thin films produced by plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PE-CVD), hot wire CVD (HW-CVD) and hot wire plasma-assisted CVD (HWPA-CVD) processes. The optical band gap of a-SiC:H films was controlled from 1.85 to 3.5 eV by varying the percentage of ethylene in the silane gas mixture from 3 to 100%. Adding a rf plasma to the hot wire process the carbon gas source dissociation is implemented leading to an increase in bulk carbon incorporation. This evidence is proved by the enhancement of the peak ascribed to the SiC stretching vibration mode, the reduction of the peak related to the SiH wagging modes, the decrease in the refractive index and the increase of optical band gap. The influence of hydrogen gas dilution on the properties of the films obtained by the different methods is also reported. © 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

In this work, we show results concerning electro-optical properties, composition and morphology of nanocrystalline hydrogenated undoped silicon (nc-Si:H) films produced by hot wire plasma assisted chemical vapour deposition process (HWPA-CVD) and exhibiting a compact granular structure, as revealed by SEM micrographs. This was also inferred by infrared spectra, which does not present the SiO vibration band located at 1050-1200 cm-1, even when samples have long atmospheric exposition. The photoconductivity measured at room temperature also does not change when samples have a long time exposition to the air or to the light irradiation. The influence of hydrogen dilution on the properties of the films was also investigated.

In this paper we report results of nanocrystalline p-doped silicon films produced by hot wire chemical vapour deposition technique with Ta filaments, using a pre-mixed gas containing silane, diborane, methane, helium and hydrogen. The data obtained show that the films produced exhibit good optoelectronic properties and show a surface morphology dependent on the filament temperature and hydrogen dilution. The increase in the filament temperature, keeping constant the hydrogen dilution (87%), promotes the preferential growth of the crystals in the {220} direction, giving rise to a pyramidal-like surface structure. This behaviour is observed by the SEM micrographs as well as by the micro-Raman and X-ray diffraction analyses. On the other hand, using a constant filament temperature, the increase in the hydrogen dilution contributes to an increase in both {111} and {220} diffraction peaks. Thus, by combining both filament temperature and hydrogen dilution the film surface can be controlled from a smooth to a pyramidal-like structure, without decreasing the crystalline fraction of the films. The structure and morphology is also reflected in the stability of the electrical dark conductivity. We observe that this property depends on the temperature range of the measurements and on the exposition time of films to the atmospheric conditions. © 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

The role of the deposition pressure and hydrogen dilution in the production of p-type Si:H films by hot wire chemical vapor deposition, was investigated. The system used permits to obtain uniform and homogeneous films properties over a 10cm×10cm substrate area. As heated filament we used Ta, since Ta filaments have longer life period without deteriorating than the W filaments ones. In this work, we show that the electrical properties of the films produced are dependent on the process gas pressure. In the pressure range of 13.3 Pa (0.1 Torr) to 66.5 Pa (0.5Torr), the film's coplanar electrical conductivity at room temperature varies by more than two orders of magnitude, for films produced at same hydrogen dilution and filament temperature, reaching values of about 0.1 (Ωcm)-1, at deposition pressures of about 40-53Pa (0.3-0.4Torr). On the other hand, the increase in hydrogen dilution (from 87% to 96%) promotes the surface roughness due to an enlargement of grain sizes in the direction of the {220} diffraction planes as observed by SEM micrographs without changing the crystalline fraction (48-50%) obtained by micro-Raman analysis.

In this paper, we investigate the optoelectronic properties and the photodegradation of amorphous silicon films produced by the hot wire plasma assisted technique (HWPA-CVD). We observed that hydrogen dilution in the gas phase plays an important role in the time dependence of the photoconductivity, which is correlated with an enhancement of defect density. We also compare the degradation of these films with those produced by plasma enhanced and by hot wire chemical vapour deposition techniques (PECVD and HW-CVD) and we found lower time dependence for the photodegradation of the films produced by HWPA-CVD technique © 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.