%0 Book Section %B Handbook of Materials Failure Analysis: With Case Studies from the Construction Industries %D 2018 %T Nondestructive testing methodology to assess the conservation of historic stone buildings and monuments %A Chastre, Carlos %A Ludovico-Marques, Marco %E Abdel Salam Hamdy Makhlouf %E Mahmood Aliofkhazraei %I Butterworth-Heinemann %K characterization %K conservation %K cultural heritage %K Historic buildings %K Monuments %K NDT %K nondestructive testing %K Stone %K stress-strain curves %K water absorption coefficient %P 255-294 %U https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780081019283000136 %X

Earthquakes, soil settlements, traffic vibrations, and air pollution are some of the actions that can affect historic old buildings. Besides these, the lack of continuous maintenance puts a large part of this heritage in risk due to structural problems that reduce their own safety and that of their users. The preservation and risk mitigation of built cultural heritage require the use of reliable tools in order to assess its state of conservation and to identify and prevent potential vulnerabilities. Having this in mind, it is not possible to carry out destructive tests in most historic old buildings, so it is preferable to opt for nondestructive tests (NDT) or alternative methodologies that allow the physical and mechanical characterization of materials and structure. In this chapter, a general view of NDT methods used in historic buildings to obtain the geometrical information, the damage mapping, the mechanical and physical characterization, and the petrographic analysis of stones is presented. An alternative methodology to physically and mechanically characterize the stone of historic buildings using NDT tests is also proposed. The chapter ends with a case study carried out in the St. Leonard’s Church, a Portuguese monument built in Atouguia da Baleia village in the 13th century, where the alternative methodology here presented was applied. The final results of this study show that the methodology proposed allows the obtention of stress-strain curves in a completely nondestructive way, based on the water absorption coefficient at low pressure.

%Z

REFERENCES [1] ICOMOSCharter, Principles for the analysis, conservation and structural restoration ofarchitectural heritage, Ratified by the ICOMOS 14th General Assembly, 2003Victoria Falls, Zambia. Available from: www.icomos.org/charters/structures_e.pdf.[2] P. Faria, C. Chastre, Visão Integrada da Reabilitação, in: P.B. Lourenço, et al. (Ed.), Paredes 2015. Reabilitação e Inovação, 2015 Lisboa.[3] ICOMOSInternational Charters for Conservation and Restoration = Chartes Internationales sur la Conservation et la Restauration = Cartas Internacionales sobre la Conservación y la Restauración, in: M. Petzet, J. Ziesemer (Eds.), Monuments and Sites, vol. I. 2015, München.[4] J.S. Popovics, NDE techniques for concrete and masonry structures, Prog. Struct. Eng. Mater. 5 (2) (2003) 49–59.[5] D.M. McCann, M.C. Forde, Review of NDT methods in the assessment of concrete and masonry structures, NDTE Int. 34 (2) (2001) 71–84.[6] M. Heidari, et al. Determination of weathering degree of the Persepolis stone under laboratory and natural conditions using fuzzy inference system, Const. Build. Mater. 145 (2017) 28–41.[7] M. Heidari, et al. Application of fuzzy inference system for determining weathering degree of some monument stones in Iran, J. Cult. Herit. 25 (2017) 41–55.[8] B. Menéndez, Non-destructive techniques applied to monumental stone conservation, in: F. Márquez, M. Papaelias, N. Zaman (Eds.), Non-Destructive Testing, InTech, Rijeka, 2016, pp. 173–213.[9] Á. Török, In situ methods of testing stone monuments, the application of nondestructive physical properties testing in masonry diagnosis, in: M.B. Dan, R. Prˇikryl, Á. Török (Eds.), Materials, Technologies, Practice in Historic Heritage Structures, Springer, Dordrecht, 2010, pp. 177–193.[10] N. Yastikli, Documentation of cultural heritage using digital photogrammetry and laser scanning, J. Cult. Herit. 8 (4) (2007) 423–427.[11] A.D. Styliadis, L.A. Sechidis, Photography-based façade recovery and 3-d modeling: a CAD application in cultural heritage, J. Cult. Herit. 12 (3) (2011) 243–252.[12] C. Stefani, et al. Developing a toolkit for mapping and displaying stone alteration on a web-based documentation platform, J. Cult. Herit. 15 (1) (2014) 1–9.[13] M. Solla, et al. A novel methodology for the structural assessment of stone arches based on geometric data by integration of photogrammetry and ground-penetrating radar, Eng. Struct. 35 (2012) 296–306.[14] G. Sansoni, M. Trebeschi, F. Docchio, State-of-the-art and applications of 3D imaging sensors in industry, cultural heritage, medicine, and criminal investigation, Sensors 9 (1) (2009) 568–601.[15] H. Rüther, et al. Laser scanning for conservation and research of African cultural heritage sites: the case study of Wonderwerk Cave, South Africa, J. Archaeol. Sci. 36 (9) (2009) 1847–1856.[16] B. Riveiro, M. Solla, Non-destructive techniques for the evaluation of structures and infrastructure, in: D.M. Frangopol (Ed.), Structures and Infrastructures Series, vol. 11, CRC Press/Balkema, Boca Raton, FL, 2016, pp. 388.[17] M.A. Núñez Andrés, F. Buill Pozuelo, Evolution of the architectural and heritage representation, Land. Urban Plan. 91 (2) (2009) 105–112.[18] N.A. Haddad, From ground surveying to 3D laser scanner: a review of techniques used for spatial documentation of historic sites, J. King Saud Univ. Eng. Sci. 23 (2) (2011) 109–118.[19] M. Enckell, et al. New and emerging technologies in structural health monitoring, Handbook of Measurement in Science and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ, (2012).[20] W. Boehler, A. Marbs, 3D Scanning and photogrammetry for heritage recording: A comparison in geoinformatics 2004, in: Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Geoinformatic−Geospatial Information Research: Bridging the Pacific and Atlantic, University of Gävle, Gävle, 2004.[21] L. Barazzetti, et al. Photogrammetric survey of complex geometries with low-cost software: application to the “G1” temple in Myson, Vietnam, J. Cult. Herit. 12 (3) (2011) 253–262.[22] J. Armesto, et al. Damage quantification and monitoring in masonry monuments through digital photogrammetry, Key Eng. Mater. 347 (2007) 291–296.[23] S. Al-kheder, Y. Al-shawabkeh, N. Haala, Developing a documentation system for desert palaces in Jordan using 3D laser scanning and digital photogrammetry, J. Archaeol. Sci. 36 (2) (2009) 537–546.[24] A.S. Gupta, K. Seshagiri Rao, Weathering effects on the strength and deformational behaviour of crystalline rocks under uniaxial compression state, Eng. Geol. 56 (3) (2000) 257–274.[25] D.M. Jones, 3D Laser Scanning for Heritage, English Heritage Publishing, Swindon, (2011).[26] Y. Arayici, An approach for real world data modelling with the 3D terrestrial laser scanner for built environment, Autom. Const. 16 (6) (2007) 816–829.[27] A. Koutsoudis, et al. Multi-image 3D reconstruction data evaluation, J. Cult. Herit. 15 (1) (2014) 73–79.[28] H. Svahn, Non-Destructive Field Tests in Stone Conservation: Final Report for the Research and Development Project: Literature Study, Riksantikvarieämbetet, Stockholm, (2006).[29] M. Solla, et al. Non-destructive methodologies in the assessment of the masonry arch bridge of Traba Spain, Eng. Fail. Anal. 18 (3) (2011) 828–835.[30] B. Conde, et al. Structural analysis of Monforte de Lemos masonry arch bridge considering the influence of the geometry of the arches and fill material on the collapse load estimation, Const. Build. Mater. 120 (2016) 630–642.[31] C. Chastre, et al. Surveying of sandstone monuments: new and traditional methodologies to assess viability of conservation actions, 40th IAHS Word Congress of Housing, Sustainable Housing Construction, Funchal, Portugal, 2013.[32] C. Chastre, M. Ludovico-Marques, Avaliação dos Portais de Pedra Arenítica da Igreja de São Leonardo Utilizando Testes Não Destrutivos, Mecân. Exper. 28 (2017) 47–54.[33] D.F. Laefer, et al. Crack detection limits in unit based masonry with terrestrial laser scanning, NDTE Int. 62 (2014) 66–76.[34] J. Meneely, et al. Developing a “non-destructive scientific toolkit” to monitor monuments and sites, ICOMOS Scientific Symposium, Valletta, Malta, 2009.[35] A.S. Paipetis, et al. Emerging Technologies in Non-Destructive Testing V, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL, (2012) p. 507.[36] K.-G. Hinzen, S. Schreiber, S. Rosellen, A high resolution laser scanning model of the Roman theater in Pinara, Turkey: comparison to previous measurements and search for the causes of damage, J. Cult. Herit. 14 (5) (2013) 424–430.[37] A. Pesci, et al. Laser scanning and digital imaging for the investigation of an ancient building: Palazzo d’Accursio study case (Bologna, Italy), J. Cult. Herit. 13 (2) (2012) 215–220.[38] P.M. Lerones, et al. Moisture detection in heritage buildings by 3D laser scanning, Stud. Conserv. 61 (Suppl. 1) (2016) 46–54.[39] J.E. Meroño, et al. Recognition of materials and damage on historical buildings using digital image classification, S. Afr. J. Sci. 111 (2015) 01–09.[40] J. Armesto-González, et al. Terrestrial laser scanning intensity data applied to damage detection for historical buildings, J. Archaeol. Sci. 37 (12) (2010) 3037–3047.[41] C. Chastre, M. Ludovico-Marques, Avaliação dos Portais da Igreja de São Leonardo na Atouguia da Baleia Utilizando Testes Não Destrutivos, 10° Congresso de Mecânica Experimental (CNME 2016), LNEC, Lisbon, (2016) p. 12.[42] G.P. Lignola, G. Manfredi, A combination of NDT methods for the restoration of monumental façades: the case study of Monte di Pietà (Naples, Italy), J. Cult. Herit. 11 (3) (2010) 360–364.[43] M. Solla, et al. Evaluation of historical bridges through recreation of GPR models with the FDTD algorithm, NDTE Int. 77 (2016) 19–27.[44] N. Luigia, Q. Tatiana, Near-surface geophysical investigations inside the cloister of the historical palace “Palazzo dei Celestini” in Lecce, Italy, J. Geophys. Eng. 7 (2) (2010) 200.[45] W. Wai-Lok Lai, X. Dérobert, P. Annan, A review of ground penetrating radar application in civil engineering: a 30-year journey from locating and testing to imaging and diagnosis, NDTE Int. (2017) (in press). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ndteint.2017.04.002.[46] N.P. Avdelidis, A. Moropoulou, Applications of infrared thermography for the investigation of historic structures, J. Cult. Herit. 5 (1) (2004) 119–127.[47] G. Faella, et al. The Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem: non-destructive tests for the structural knowledge, J. Cult. Herit. 13 (4) (2012) e27–e41.[48] E. Quagliarini, E. Esposito, A. del Conte, The combined use of IRT and LDV for the investigation of historical thin vaults, J. Cult. Herit. 14 (2) (2013) 122–128.[49] A. Moropoulou, et al. Diagnostics and protection of Hagia Sophia mosaics, J. Cult. Herit. 14 (Suppl. 3) (2013) e133–e139.[50] M. Hess, et al. High-resolution thermal imaging methodology for non-destructive evaluation of historic structures, Infrar. Phys. Technol. 73 (2015) 219–225.[51] E.Z. Kordatos, et al. Infrared thermographic inspection of murals and characterization of degradation in historic monuments, Const. Build. Mater. 48 (2013) 1261–1265.[52] T. Uomoto, Non-Destructive Testing in Civil Engineering 2000, Elsevier Science, New York, (2000) p. 682.[53] D. Paoletti, et al. Preventive thermographic diagnosis of historical buildings for consolidation, J. Cult. Herit. 14 (2) (2013) 116–121.[54] Y.H. Jo, C.H. Lee, Quantitative modeling and mapping of blistering zone of the Magoksa Temple stone pagoda (13th century Republic of Korea) by graduated heating thermography, Infra. Phys. Technol. 65 (2014) 43–50.[55] G. Kilic, Using advanced NDT for historic buildings: towards an integrated multidisciplinary health assessment strategy, J. Cult. Herit. 16 (4) (2015) 526–535.[56] G. Vasconcelos, et al. Ultrasonic evaluation of the physical and mechanical properties of granites, Ultrasonics 48 (5) (2008) 453–466.[57] W. Martínez-Molina, et al. Predicting concrete compressive strength and modulus of rupture using different NDT techniques, Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng. (2014) Article ID: 742129, 15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/742129.[58] S. Kashif Ur Rehman, et al. Nondestructive test methods for concrete bridges: a review, Const. Build. Mater. 107 (2016) 58–86.[59] M. Ohtsu, Innovative AE and NDT Techniques for On-Site Measurement of Concrete and Masonry Structures: State-of-the-Art Report of the RILEM Technical Committee 239-MCM, Springer, Dordrecht, (2016).[60] M. Wevers, Listening to the sound of materials: acoustic emission for the analysis of material behaviour, NDTE Int. 30 (2) (1997) 99–106.[61] V. Pérez-Gracia, et al. Geophysics: fundamentals and applications in structures and infrastructure, Non-Destructive Techniques for the Evaluation of Structures and Infrastructure, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, (2016) pp. 59–88.[62] E. Martinho, A. Dionísio, Main geophysical techniques used for non-destructive evaluation in cultural built heritage: a review, J. Geophys. Eng. 11 (5) (2014) 053001.[63] L. Binda, et al. Application of sonic and radar tests on the piers and walls of the Cathedral of Noto, Const. Build. Mater. 17 (8) (2003) 613–627.[64] S. Santos-Assunçao, et al. Assessment of complex masonry structures with GPR compared to other non-destructive testing studies, Remote Sens. 6 (9) (2014) 8220.[65] G. Leucci, et al. GPR and sonic tomography for structural restoration: the case of the cathedral of Tricarico, J. Geophys. Eng. 8 (3) (2011) S76.[66] K. Labropoulos, A. Moropoulou, Ground penetrating radar investigation of the bell tower of the church of the Holy Sepulchre, Const. Build. Mater. 47 (2013) 689–700.[67] M. Solla, et al. Ground-penetrating radar for the structural evaluation of masonry bridges: results and interpretational tools, Const. Build. Mater. 29 (2012) 458–465.[68] O. Bergamo, et al. In-situ NDT testing procedure as an integral part of failure analysis of historical masonry arch bridges, Eng. Fail. Anal. 57 (2015) 31–55.[69] M.-G. Masciotta, et al. A multidisciplinary approach to assess the health state of heritage structures: the case study of the Church of Monastery of Jerónimos in Lisbon, Const. Build. Mater. 116 (2016) 169–187.[70] G. Carlos, et al. A multi-method high-resolution geophysical survey in the Machado de Castro museum, central Portugal, J. Geophys. Eng. 8 (2) (2011) 351.[71] V. Pérez-Gracia, et al. Non-destructive analysis in cultural heritage buildings: evaluating the Mallorca cathedral supporting structures, NDTE Int. 59 (2013) 40–47.[72] P. Arias, et al. Digital photogrammetry, GPR and computational analysis of structural damages in a mediaeval bridge, Eng. Fail. Anal. 14 (8) (2007) 1444–1457.[73] E. Cheilakou, N. Liarokapi, M. Koui, NDT characterization of ancient glass objects from the Aegean with an approach of the manufacturing technique, Emerging Technologies in Non-Destructive Testing V, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, (2012) p. 63.[74] S. Campana, Drones in archaeology: state-of-the-art and future perspectives, Archaeol. Prosp. (2017).[75] M. Santise, et al. Evaluation of DEM generation accuracy from UAS imagery, International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences—ISPRS Archives, 2014.[76] R. Aguilar, et al. Geomatics’ procedures and dynamic identification for the structural survey of the church of “San Juan Bautista de Huaro” in Perú, Brick and Block Masonry: Trends, Innovations and Challenges - Proceedings of the 16th International Brick and Block Masonry Conference, IBMAC, 2016.[77] W. Zhou, et al. Fine deformation monitoring of ancient building based on terrestrial laser scanning technologies, IOP Conf. Series 17 (1) (2014) 012166.[78] F.M. Fernandes, P.B. Lourenço, F. Castro, Ancient clay bricks: manufacture and properties, in: M.B. Dan, R. Prˇikryl, Á. Török (Eds.), Materials, Technologies, Practice in Historic Heritage Structures, Springer, The Netherlands, 2010, pp. 29–48.[79] N. Sabatakakis, et al. Index properties and strength variation controlled by microstructure for sedimentary rocks, Eng. Geol. 97 (1) (2008) 80–90.[80] B.J. Fitzner, Investigation of weathering damage on stone monuments, Revista Geon. 24 (2) (2016) 1–15.[81] A. Aydin, ISRM Suggested method for determination of the Schmidt hammer rebound hardness: revised version, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 46 (3) (2009) 627–634.[82] A. Basu, A. Aydin, A method for normalization of Schmidt hammer rebound values, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 41 (7) (2004) 1211–1214.[83] B. Christaras, Non destructive methods for investigation of some mechanical properties of natural stones in the protection of monuments, Bull. Int. Assoc. Eng. Geol. 54 (1) (1996) 59–63.[84] R. Fort, M. Alvarez de Buergo, E.M. Perez-Monserrat, Non-destructive testing for the assessment of granite decay in heritage structures compared to quarry stone, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 61 (2013) 296–305.[85] A. Aydin, A. Basu, The Schmidt hammer in rock material characterization, Eng. Geol. 81 (1) (2005) 1–14.[86] S. Siegesmund, R. Snethlage, Stone in Architecture: Properties, Durability, Springer, New York, (2011).[87] Á. Török, Surface strength and mineralogy of weathering crusts on limestone buildings in Budapest, Build. Environ. 38 (9) (2003) 1185–1192.[88] H. Viles, et al. The use of the Schmidt Hammer and Equotip for rock hardness assessment in geomorphology and heritage science: a comparative analysis, Earth Surf. Proc. Landf. 36 (3) (2011) 320–333.[89] M.A. Coombes, et al. A non-destructive tool for detecting changes in the hardness of engineering materials: application of the Equotip durometer in the coastal zone, Eng. Geol. 167 (2013) 14–19.[90] C. Gentile, A. Saisi, Radar-based vibration measurement on historic masonry towers, Emerging Technologies in Non-Destructive Testing V, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, (2012) pp. 51–56.[91] L.M. Suárez del Río, Acoustic emission monitoring of the Cathedral of Palma de Mallorca (Spain), in: M.B. Dan, R. Prˇikryl, Á. Török (Eds.), Materials, Technologies, Practice in Historic Heritage Structures, Springer, Dordrecht, 2010, pp. 351– 365 et al.[92] M. Skłodowski, R. Snethlage, M. Kocher, Micro drill cores: a new tool for testing stones for conservation purposes, 11th International Congress on Deterioration and Conservation of Stones, 2008 Nicolaus Copernicus University Press, Torun´, Poland.[93] M. Ludovico-Marques, Contribution to the Knowledge of the Effect of Crystallization of Salts in the Weathering of Sandstones, Application to the Built Heritage of Atouguia da Baleia, PhD thesis Geotechnical Engineering, specializing in rock mechanics (in Portuguese), Universidade NOVA of Lisbon, Portugal, (2008) 314.[94] D. Miloš, S. Zuzana, Enhanced affordable methods for assessing material characteristics and consolidation effects on stone and mortar, J. Geophys. Eng. 10 (6) (2013) 064005.[95] J.D. Rodrigues, A.F. Pinto, D.R. da Costa, Tracing of decay profiles and evaluation of stone treatments by means of microdrilling techniques, J. Cult. Herit. 3 (2) (2002) 117–125.[96] M. Ludovico-Marques, C. Chastre, Conservation of sandstone monuments: a new approach in consolidation treatments, 40th IAHS Word Congress of Housing, Sustainable Housing Construction, 2014, Funchal, Portugal.[97] M. Ludovico-Marques, C. Chastre, Durability assessment of consolidation effect on sandstone monuments, 41th IAHS Word Congress of Housing, Sustainability and Innovation for the Future, 2016, Albufeira, Portugal.[98] M. Ludovico-Marques, C. Chastre, G. Vasconcelos, Modelling the compressive mechanical behaviour of granite and sandstone historical building stones, Const. Build. Mater. 28 (1) (2012) 372–381.[99] L. Miccoli, U. Müller, P. Fontana, Mechanical behaviour of earthen materials: a comparison between earth block masonry, rammed earth and cob, Const. Build. Mater. 61 (2014) 327–339.[100] I. Martínez, et al. Physico-chemical material characterization of historic unreinforced masonry buildings: the first step for a suitable intervention, Const. Build. Mater. 40 (2013) 352–360.[101] U. Müller, L. Miccoli, P. Fontana, Development of a lime based grout for cracks repair in earthen constructions, Const. Build. Mater. 110 (2016) 323–332.[102] S. Botas, R. Veiga, A. Velosa, Air lime mortars for conservation of historic tiles: bond strength of new mortars to old tiles, Const. Build. Mater. 145 (2017) 426–434.[103] S. Andrejkovicˇová, A.L. Velosa, F. Rocha, Air lime–metakaolin–sepiolite mortars for earth based walls, Const. Build. Mater. 44 (2013) 133–141.[104] A. Klisin´ska-Kopacz, R. Tišlova, Theeffectofcompositionofromancementrepairmortarsontheirsaltcrystallizationresistanceandadhesion, Proced. Eng. 57 (2013) 565–571.[105] RILEMTest method recommendations of RILEM TC 177-MDT “Masonry durability and on-site testing”: D.5: in-situ stress-strain behaviour tests based on the flat jack, Mater. Struct. 37 (271) (2004) 497–501.[106] F. da Porto, et al. Analysis and repair of clustered buildings: case study of a block in the historic city centre of L’Aquila (Central Italy), Const. Build. Mater. 38 (2013) 1221–1237.[107] A. Carpinteri, G. Lacidogna, Damage evaluation of three masonry towers by acoustic emission, Eng. Struct. 29 (7) (2007) 1569–1579.[108] V. Bosiljkov, et al. An integrated diagnostic approach for the assessment of historic masonry structures, J. Cult. Herit. 11 (3) (2010) 239–249.[109] I. Lombillo, et al. Mechanical characterization of rubble stone masonry walls using non and minor destructive tests, Const. Build. Mater. 43 (2013) 266–277.[110] A. Anzani, et al. A multilevel approach for the damage assessment of historic masonry towers, J. Cult. Herit. 11 (4) (2010) 459–470.[111] L. Binda, A. Saisi, Non destructive testing applied to historic buildings: the case of some Sicilian churches, in: P.B. Lourenço, P. Roca (Eds.), Historical Constructions, Guimarães, 2001, pp. 29–46.[112] C. Almeida, et al. Physical characterization and compression tests of one leaf stone masonry walls, Const. Build. Mater. 30 (2012) 188–197.[113] L. Binda, et al. Repair and investigation techniques for stone masonry walls, Const. Build. Mater. 11 (3) (1997) 133–142.[114] L.F. Miranda, et al. Sonic impact method: a new technique for characterization of stone masonry walls, Const. Build. Mater. 36 (2012) 27–35.[115] RILEM, Test method recommendations of RILEM TC 177-MDT “Masonry durability and on-site testing”: D.4: in-situ stress tests based on the flat jack, Mater. Struct. 37 (271) (2004) 491–496.[116] EN14146 Natural Stone Test Methods: Determination of the Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity (by Measuring the Fundamental Resonance Frequency), CEN, Brussels, (2006).[117] F.F.S. Pinho, Paredes de alvenaria ordinária: estudo experimental com modelos simples e reforçados, PhD thesis (in Portuguese), Universidade NOVA of Lisbon, Portugal, (2007) 699.[118] RILEM-TC25-PEMEssais recommandés pour mesurer l’altération des pierres et évaluer l’efficacité des méthodes de traitement/recommended tests to measure the deterioration of stone and to assess the effectiveness of treatment methods, Mater. Struct. 13 (75) (1980) 175–253.[119] B. Glisic, Monitoring of heritage structures and historical monuments using long-gage fiber optic interferometric sensors: an overview, in: Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Structural Health Monitoring of Intelligent Infrastructure-SHMII-3, 2007Vancouver, BC, Canada.[120] P.P. Rossi, C. Rossi, Surveillance and monitoring of ancient structures: recent developments, in: P. Roca et al. (Eds.), Structural Analysis of Historical Constructions II, Barcelona, Spain, 1998, pp. 163–178.[121] B. Glisic, D. Inaudi, Fibre Optic Methods for Structural Health Monitoring, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ, (2008).[122] G. Almeida, et al. In-plane displacement and strain image analysis, Comp. Aid. Civil Infrastruct. Eng. 31 (4) (2016) 292–304.[123] G. Busse, et al. Emerging Technologies in Non-Destructive Testing, Taylor & Francis/ Balkema, New York, (2008) p. 366.[124] C. Colla, E. Gabrielli, Photoelasticity and DIC as optical techniques for monitoring masonry specimens under mechanical loads, J. Phys. 778 (1) (2017) 012003.[125] M.R. Viotti, A.J. Albertazzi, R-Robust Speckle Metrology Techniques for Stress Analysis and NDT, SPIE Press, Bellingham, WA, (2014) p. 180.[126] G. Almeida, et al. Displacement measurements with ARPS in T-beams load tests, Technological Innovation for Sustainability, Springer Science + Business Media, New York, (2011) pp. 286–293.[127] C. Gentile, A. Saisi, Operational modal testing of historic structures at different levels of excitation, Const. Build. Mater. 48 (2013) 1273–1285.[128] M.R. Valluzzi, et al. Structural investigations and analyses for the conservation of the “Arsenale” of Venice, J. Cult. Herit. 3 (1) (2002) 65–71.[129] E.N.B.S. Júlio, C.A. da Silva Rebelo, D.A.S.G. Dias-da-Costa, Structural assessment of the tower of the University of Coimbra by modal identification, Eng. Struct. 30 (12) (2008) 3468–3477.[130] L. Zanotti Fragonara, et al. Dynamic investigation on the Mirandola bell tower in postearthquake scenarios, Bull. Earthq. Eng. 15 (1) (2017) 313–337.[131] G. Brando, E. Criber, G. De Matteis, The effects of L’aquila earthquake on the St Gemma church in Goriano Sicoli: part II—fem analysis, Bull. Earthq. Eng. 13 (12) (2015) 3733–3748.[132] C.S. Oliveira, et al. Minaret behavior under earthquake loading: the case of historical Istanbul, Earthq. Eng. Struct. Dynam. 41 (1) (2012) 19–39.[133] A. Bayraktar, et al. Modal parameter identification of Hagia Sophia bell-tower via ambient vibration test, J. Nondestr. Eval. 28 (1) (2009) 37–47.[134] W. Torres, et al. Operational modal analysis and FE model updating of the Metropolitan Cathedral of Santiago, Chile, Eng. Struct. 143 (2017) 169–188.[135] A. Saisi, C. Gentile, M. Guidobaldi, Post-earthquake continuous dynamic monitoring of the Gabbia Tower in Mantua Italy, Const. Build. Mater. 81 (2015) 101–112.[136] A. D’Ambrisi, V. Mariani, M. Mezzi, Seismic assessment of a historical masonry tower with nonlinear static and dynamic analyses tuned on ambient vibration tests, Eng. Struct. 36 (2012) 210–219.[137] A.M. Turk, Seismic response analysis of masonry minaret and possible strengthening by fiber reinforced cementitious matrix (FRCM) materials, Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng., (2013) Article ID: 952497, 14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/952497.[138] V. Compán, et al. Structural safety assessment of geometrically complex masonry vaults by non-linear analysis: the Chapel of the Würzburg Residence (Germany), Eng. Struct. 140 (2017) 1–13.[139] S.V. Calcina, L. Piroddi, G. Ranieri, Vibration analysis of historic bell towers by means of contact and remote sensing measurements, Nondestr. Test. Eval. 31 (4) (2016) 331–359.[140] A. Erkal, Transmission of traffic-induced vibrations on and around the Minaret of Little Hagia Sophia, Int. J. Arch. Herit. 11 (3) (2017) 349–362.[141] C.R. Carvalho, Seismic vulnerability analysis of the Rua Augusta Arch, MSc. thesis (in Portuguese), Universidade NOVA of Lisbon, Portugal, 2015, pp. 128.[142] S. Atamturktur, et al. Full-scale modal testing of vaulted Gothic churches: lessons learned, Exper. Techniq. 33 (4) (2009) 65–74.[143] M. Mario, et al. Comparison of natural and artificial forcing to study the dynamic behaviour of bell towers in low wind context by means of ground-based radar interferometry: the case of the Leaning Tower in Pisa, J. Geophys. Eng. 11 (5) (2014) 055004.[144] B. Zhang, Ground-based interferometric radar for dynamic deformation monitoring of the Ting Kau Bridge in Hong Kong, 2016 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS), 2016 et al.[145] T.A. Stabile, et al. A new joint application of non-invasive remote sensing techniques for structural health monitoring, J. Geophys. Eng. 9 (4) (2012) S53.[146] M. Drdácký, Innovated water uptake measurements on historic stone surfaces, in: Proceeding of the 12th International Congress on the Deterioration and Conservation of Stone, 2012, Columbia University, New York. et al.[147] R. Duarte, I. Flores-Colen, J. de Brito, In situ testing techniques for evaluation of water penetration in rendered facades—the portable moisture meter and Karsten Tube, in: Proceedings of the XII International Conference on Durability of Building Material and Components, 2011, Porto, Portugal.[148] R. Hendrickx, Using the Karsten tube to estimate water transport parameters of porous building materials, Mater. Struct. 46 (8) (2013) 1309–1320.[149] P. Koudelka, et al. Radiographical investigation of fluid penetration processes in natural stones used in historical buildings, J. Intrument. 9 (5) (2014) C05040.[150] M. Ludovico-Marques, C. Chastre, Effect of artificial accelerated salt weathering on physical and mechanical behavior of sandstone samples from surface reservoirs, in: A.S.H. Makhlouf, M. Aliofkhazraei (Eds.), Handbook of Materials Failure Analysis With Case Studies from the Oil and Gas Industry, Butterworth Heinemann–Elsevier, New York, 2016, pp. 215–233.[151] A. Menezes, M. Glória Gomes, I. Flores-Colen, In-situ assessment of physical performance and degradation analysis of rendering walls, Const. Build. Mater. 75 (2015) 283–292.[152] D. Vandevoorde, et al. Comparison of non-destructive techniques for analysis of the water absorbing behavior of stone, 12th International Congress on the Deterioration and Conservation of Stone, 2012, Columbia University, New York.[153] D. Vandevoorde, et al. Validation of in situ applicable measuring techniques for analysis of the water adsorption by stone, Proced. Chem. 8 (2013) 317–327.[154] C. Colla, et al. Sonic, electromagnetic and impulse radar investigation of stone masonry bridges, NDTE Int. 30 (4) (1997) 249–254.[155] J. Blitz, Electrical and magnetic methods of non-destructive testing, in: W. Lord (Ed.), Non-Destructive Evaluation Series, vol. 3, Springer, New York, 1997, pp. 261.[156] B. Massimo, et al. Ground penetrating radar and microwave tomography 3D applications for the deck evaluation of the Musmeci bridge in Potenza, Italy, J. Geophys. Eng. 8 (3) (2011) S33.[157] C. Maierhofer, H.-W. Reinhardt, G. Dobmann, Non-Destructive Evaluation of Reinforced Concrete Structures Volume 1: Deterioration Processes and Standard Test, Woodhead, Sawston, (2010) p. 250.[158] S. Brown, M. Smith, A transient-flow syringe air permeameter, Geophysics 78 (5) (2013) D307–D313.[159] B.V. Iversen, et al. Field application of a portable air permeameter to characterize spatial variability in air and water permeability, Vadose Zone J. 2 (4) (2003) 618–626.[160] J.L. Jensen, C.A. Glasbey, P.W.M. Corbett, On the interaction of geology, measurement, and statistical analysis of small-scale permeability measurements, Terra Nova 6 (4) (1994) 397–403.[161] C.M. Filomena, J. Hornung, H. Stollhofen, Assessing accuracy of gas-driven permeability measurements: a comparative study of diverse Hassler-cell and probe permeameter devices, Solid Earth 5 (1) (2014) 1–11.[162] A.J. Katz, A.H. Thompson, Quantitative prediction of permeability in porous rock, Phys. Rev. B 34 (11) (1986) 8179–8181.[163] M. Skłodowski, Application of ultrasonic edge probes to on-site testing of mechanical properties of historical materials, International Workshop–SMW08 In Situ Monitoring of Monumental Surfaces, 2008, Edifir, Florence, Italy.[164] EN1936, Natural Stone Test Methods: Determination of Real Density and Apparent Density, and of Total and Open Porosity, CEN, Brussels, (2006).[165] E. Borrelli, A. Urland, ARC Laboratory handbook: porosity, salts, binders, colour, Conservation of Architectural Heritage, Historic Structures and Materials, ICCROM, International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property, Rome, (1999).[166] M. Ludovico-Marques, C. Chastre, Effect of consolidation treatments on mechanical behaviour of sandstone, Construct. Build. Mater. 70 (2014) 473–482.[167] D. Breysse, Non-destructive assessment of concrete structures: reliability and limits of single and combined techniques, RILEM State-of-the-Art Reports, Springer, New York, (2012) vol.1, 374.[168] M. Ludovico-Marques, C. Chastre, Effect of salt crystallization ageing on the compressive behavior of sandstone blocks in historical buildings, Eng. Fail. Anal. 26 (2012) 247–257.[169] F.S. Anselmetti, S. Luthi, G.P. Eberli, Quantitative characterization of carbonate pore systems by digital image analysis, AAPG Bull. 82 (10) (1998) 1815–1836.[170] R. Ehrlich, et al. Petrography and reservoir physics I: objective classification of reservoir porosity, AAPG Bull. 75 (10) (1991) 1547–1562.[171] R. Ehrlich, J. Korkowitz, Estimation of petrophysics from thin sections-petrographic image analysis, in: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Southwest Section convention, Dallas, TX, United States, AAPG Bull. 71 (2) (1987) 238.[172] S. Siegesmund, H. Dürrast, Physical and mechanical properties of rocks, in: S. Siegesmund, R. Snethlage (Eds.), Stone in Architecture: Properties, Durability, Springer, Berlin–Heidelberg, 2011, pp. 97–225.[173] V. Fassina, 9th International Congress on Deterioration and Conservation of Stone, Elsevier, Venice, 2000.[174] M. Drdácký, et al. Standardization of peeling tests for assessing the cohesion and consolidation characteristics of historic stone surfaces, Mater. Struct. 45 (4) (2012) 505–520.[175] P.M.D. Santos, E.N.B.S. Júlio, Development of a laser roughness analyser to predict in situ the bond strength of concrete-to-concrete interfaces, Magaz. Concrete Res. 60 (5) (2008) 329–337.[176] R. Snethlage, K. Sterflinger, Stone conservation, in: S. Siegesmund, R. Snethlage (Eds.), Stone in Architecture: Properties, Durability, Springer, Berlin–Heidelberg, 2011, pp. 411–544.[177] J.M. Birginie, T. Rivas, Use of a laser camera scanner to highlight the surface degradation of stone samples subjected to artificial weathering, Build. Environ. 40 (6) (2005) 755–764.[178] M. Da˛bski, Rock surface micro-roughness, Schmidt hammer rebound and weathering rind thickness within LIA Skálafellsjökull foreland, SE Iceland, Polish Polar Res. 35 (1) (2014) 99.[179] V.-C. Carmen, et al. The measurement of surface roughness to determine the suitability of different methods for stone cleaning, J. Geophys. Eng. 9 (4) (2012) S108.[180] H. Siedel, S. Siegesmund, K. Sterflinger, Characterisation of stone deterioration on buildings, in: S. Siegesmund, R. Snethlage (Eds.), Stone in Architecture: Properties, Durability, Springer, Berlin–Heidelberg, 2011, pp. 347–410.[181] H. Aoki, Y. Matsukura, A new technique for non-destructive field measurement of rocksurface strength: an application of the Equotip hardness tester to weathering studies, Earth Surf. Proc. Landf. 32 (12) (2007) 1759–1769.[182] K. Wilhelm, H. Viles, Ó. Burke, Low impact surface hardness testing (Equotip) on porous surfaces: advances in methodology with implications for rock weathering and stone deterioration research, Earth Surf. Proc. Landf. 41 (8) (2016) 1027–1038.[183] W. Verwaal, A. Mulder, Estimating rock strength with the equotip hardness tester, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Geomech. Abs. 30 (6) (1993) 659–662.[184] T. Szwedzicki, Draft ISRM suggested method for determining the indentation hardness index of rock materials, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Geomechan. Abs. 6 (35) (1998) 831–835.[185] M. Kloiber, et al. Prediction of mechanical properties by means of semi-destructive methods: a review, Const. Build. Mater. 101 (Part 2) (2015) 1215–1234.[186] A.P. Ferreira Pinto, J. Delgado Rodrigues, Consolidation of carbonate stones: influence of treatment procedures on the strengthening action of consolidants, J. Cult. Herit. 13 (2) (2012) 154–166.[187] C.D. Gribble, A.J. Hall, Optical Mineralogy: Principles and Practice, Chapman & Hall/ CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, (1992) p. 303.[188] P. Green, Color Management: Understanding and Using ICC Profiles, in: M Kriss (Ed.), The Wiley-IS&T Series in Imaging Science and Technology, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 2010.[189] A.H. Munsell, Atlas of the Munsell Color System, Wadsworth, Howland & Co., Inc., Printers, Malden, MA, (1915).[190] L.B. Tiwari, et al. Weathering impact on the colour of building stones of the “Gateway of India” monument, Environ. Geol. 48 (6) (2005) 788–794.[191] M. Diana, N. Gabrielli, S. Ridolfi, Sulfur determination on stone monuments with a transportable EDXRF system, X-Ray Spectr. 36 (6) (2007) 424–428.[192] R.M. Ion, et al. Effects of the restoration mortar on chalk stone buildings, IOP Conf. Series 133 (1) (2016) 012038.[193] I. Sianoudis, E. Drakaki, A. Hein, Educational X-ray experiments and XRF measurements with a portable setup adapted for the characterization of cultural heritage objects, Eur. J. Phys. 31 (3) (2010) 419.[194] K. Janssens, X-ray based methods of analysis, Comp. Anal. Chem. 42 (2004) 129–226 Chapter 4.[195] H. Morillas, et al. The cauliflower-like black crusts on sandstones: a natural passive sampler to evaluate the surrounding environmental pollution, Environ. Res. 147 (2016) 218–232.[196] C. Bläuer Böhm, Quantitative salt analysis in conservation of buildings/quantitative Salzanalyse bei der Konservierung von Bauwerken, Rest. Build. Monum. 11 (6) (2005) 409.[197] C. Bläuer Böhm, Assessment of quantitative salt analysis by the water extraction method on lime mortars, 8th International Congress on Deterioration and Conservation of Stone, 1996Berlin, Germany.[198] C. Bläuer, C. Franzen, V. Vergès-Belmin, Simple field tests in stone conservation, 12th International Congress on the Deterioration and Conservation of Stone, 2012.[199] M. Ludovico-Marques, et al. Methodology used to carry out a fast identification of soluble salts in efflorescences of old mortars (in Portuguese), Seminary of Soluble Salts in Old Mortars, LNEC, Lisbon, (2005) pp. 21.1–21.9.[200] EN12407, Natural stone test methods - Petrographic examination. 2006, CEN: Brussels. [201] F. Chayes, Petrographic Modal Analysis: An Elementary Statistical Appraisal, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ, (1956).[202] C.D. Gribble, A.J. Hall, A Practical Introduction to Optical Mineralogy, George Allen & Unwin, Crows Nest, (1985) p. 250.[203] P.F. Kerr, Optical Mineralogy, fourth ed., McGraw-Hill College, New York, (2003). [204] W.D. Nesse, Introduction to Optical Mineralogy, Oxford University Press, Oxford, (1991). [205] R. Dorn, Rock coatings, Developments in Earth Surface Processes, Elsevier, Amsterdam, (1998) vol. 6, pp. 41–65.[206] R.I. Dorn, Rock coatings, Treatise on Geomorphology, Elsevier, New York, pp. 70–97.(2013)[207] G. Bitossi, et al. Spectroscopic techniques in cultural heritage conservation: a survey, Appl. Spectro. Rev. 40 (3) (2005) 187–228.[208] I. Ioannou, et al. Synchrotron radiation energy-dispersive X-ray diffraction analysis of salt distribution in Lepine limestone, Analyst 130 (7) (2005) 1006–1008.[209] K. Janssens, R. Van Grieken, Non-destructive micro analysis of cultural heritage materials, Comprehensive Analytical Chemistry, vol. XLII, Elsevier Science, New York, 2004 p.800.[210] G. Gallello, et al. Non-destructive analytical methods to study the conservation state of Apadana Hall of Persepolis, Sci. Total Environ. 544 (2016) 291–298.[211] R. Cesareo, A. Brunetti, S. Ridolfi, Pigment layers and precious metal sheets by energydispersive X-ray fluorescence analysis, X-Ray Spectro. 37 (4) (2008) 309–316.[212] M. Guerra, et al. Performance of three different Si X-ray detectors for portable XRF spectrometers in cultural heritage applications, J. Instrum. 7 (10) (2012) C10004.[213] S. Pessanha, et al. A novel portable energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometer with triaxial geometry, J. Instrum. 12 (1) (2017) P01014.[214] W.E. Gardner, Improving the effectiveness and reliability of non-destructive testing, International Series on Materials Evaluation and Non-Destructive Testing, Pergamon Press, Oxford, (1992).[215] L. Bonizzoni, et al. Comparison between XRF, TXRF, and PXRF analyses for provenance classification of archaeological bricks, X-Ray Spectro. 42 (4) (2013) 262–267.[216] E. Peccenini, et al. Advanced imaging systems for diagnostic investigations applied to cultural heritage, J. Phys. 566 (1) (2014) 012022.[217] H.G.M. Edwards, D.L.A. de Faria, Chapter 8 infrared, Raman microscopy and fibreoptic Raman spectroscopy (FORS), Comp. Anal. Chem. 42 (2004) 359–395.[218] D. Kovala-Demertzi, et al. Pigment identification in a Greek icon by optical microscopy and infrared microspectroscopy, J. Cult. Herit. 13 (1) (2012) 107–113.[219] D. Gulotta, et al. Commercial NHL-containing mortars for the preservation of historical architecture. Part 1: compositional and mechanical characterisation, Const. Build. Mater. 38 (2013) 31–42.[220] G.S. Senesi, etal. Lasercleaningandlaser-inducedbreakdownspectroscopyappliedinremovingandcharacterizingblackcrustsfromlimestonesofCastelloSvevo, Bari, Italy: acasestudy, Microchem. J. 124 (2016) 296–305.[221] N.B. Zorov, etal. Qualitativeandquantitativeanalysisofenvironmentalsamplesbylaser-inducedbreakdownspectrometry, Russ. Chem. Rev. 84 (10) (2015) 1021.[222] M.J. Barroca, EpigrafiaMedievalPortuguesa: 862-1422, Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian : Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia, Lisbon, (2000).[223] C. Normal, Raccomandazioni Normal: 1/88 Alterazioni Macroscopiche dei Materiali Lapidei: Lessico, CNR-ICR, Rome, (1990).[224] J. Ordaz, R.M. Esbert, Glosario de términos relacionados con el deterioro de las piedras de construcción, Mater. Constr. 38 (209) (1988) 39–45.[225] B. Fitzner, K. Heinrichs, Photo Atlas of Weathering Forms on Stone Monuments. 2004, Available from: http://www.stone.rwth-aachen.de.[226] V. Vergès-Belmin, et al. Illustrated Glossary on Stone Deterioration Patterns = Glossaire Illustré sur les Formes d’altération de la Pierre, ICOMOS, Warsaw, (2008).[227] I.S. Evans, Salt crystallization and rock weathering: a review, Rev. Géomorphol. Dynam. 19 (1970) 153–177.[228] C. Rodriguez-Navarro, E. Doehne, E. Sebastian, Origins of honeycomb weathering: the role of salts and wind, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 111 (8) (1999) 1250–1255.[229] Lourenço P., et al., Reducing the Seismic Vulnerability of Cultural Heritage Buildings. 2006. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277059328_Reducing_the_seismic_vulnerability_of_cultural_heritage_buildings[230] H. Biscaia, et al. Flexural strengthening of old timber floors with laminated carbon fiber reinforced polymers, J. Compos. Constr. 21 (1) (2017) 04016073.[231] A. Moropoulou, et al. Non-destructive techniques as a tool for the protection of built cultural heritage, Constr. Build. Mater. 48 (2013) 1222–1239.

%@ 978-0-08-101928-3